BRITISH CONQUEST & HER ADMINISTRATION
The advent of British power was an epoch making development in the history of the Zomi. It marked the end of the long period in which they had lived in isolation and the beginning of a new era in which they became a part of a larger and rapidly changing world. The British rule meant the end of internecine tribal warfare and raiding, and the beginning of an era of peace. The policy followed by the British administrators during the next half century provided the framework within which the new Zomi society was to take shape.
Earliest Contact With The British
It is recorded that in the spring of 1776, a party of Zomi (Cucis) visited the late Charles Croftes, Esq at Fajarabad in the Chittagong area and entertained him with a dance. It is further mentioned that they promised to return after their harvest This particular incident may be treated as the beginning of the establishment of relationship between the British and the Zomi. Then the following year, i.e. 1777 the Zomi made a raid inside the territory of the British. Mr J Renne, Chief Engineer of Bengal, was the first Englishman who entered inside the Zomi area In the year 1800 AD, he went to the south Lushai Hills in connection with land survey. Then after a gap of 23 years i.e. in 1823 AD the British again entered into the Zomi area to drive out the Burmese from the island, Shapuri. This expedition was known as Naaf River Expedition. After this incident, a regular contact was established between the Zomi and the British at least in the Lushai Hills.
Raids
The Zomi were known and feared for their raids. Their raids against British subjects intensified when the East India Company’s expansionist policy of establishing tea gardens were encroaching on their hunting grounds and cultivable areas. The pleasure of head-hunting was never the reasons for the raids, as Shakespearput it thus: “The killing and taking of heads were merely incidents in the raids, not the cause of it.”
British Policy Towards The Zomi
In spite of the increasing raids on their subjects, the British constantly followed ‘policy of non-interference and conciliation’ because they did not see any opportunity for economic gain in administering Zo country. They conducted limited military expeditions like Blackwood’s Expedition (1844), Col Lister’s Expedition (1849), etc to control the incessant raids. However, the expeditions achieved limited success in so far as they stopped the raiding for only a few years.
By the end of the decade, the British changed its policy and adopted ‘forward policy’ for dealing with the Zomi. As CE Buckland put it:
“The policy unanimously recommended by the local officers was that raids should be met by condign punishment, in the shape of military occupation of the raiders’ villages during as long a period as possible, the seizure of their crops and stored grain, and the forced submission of their Chiefs; after that, by the steady endeavour of the frontier officers to influence them and promote trade; and finally, by a system of frontier posts combined with a line of road running north and south from Cachar frontier to the Chittagong.”
While Edgar, the Deputy Commissioner of Cachar was in the Lushai Hills pursuing the policy of conciliation with apparent success, a series of Zo raids on British subject took place. These were more systematically organised and determined in character than previous incursions had been. The first raid on the Chittagong Hill Tracts in December 1870 was followed in quick succession by nine raids on the Cachar plains within a period of 30 days in Feb 1871. Simultaneously, there were raids in Sylhet, Tripura and Manipur. An incident which leaves significant influence upon British Forward Policy was the attack upon the tea garden at Alexandrapore on January 23 in which the planter, Winchester, was killed and his six year old daughter Mary Winchester was carried off as a captive.
Military Campaign In Western Zogam
By this time Edgar, who was highly optimistic about his mission in conciliating the Zomi, was also baffled by the repeated raids and he submitted a memorandum in which he suggested that the Zomi should be subjugated completely. He made it clear that for the protection of the tea gardens of Cachar Frontier, the Zo country should be annexed.
Thus, on July 11, 1871, the Governor-General-in-Council ordered an expedition against the Zomi in Lushai Hills (Western Zogam) which became to be known as The Lushai Expedition 1871-72. The expeditionary force was divided into two columns — The Left Column advanced from Cachar under the command of Gen G Bourchier, with Edgar, Dy. Commissioner of Cachar as Civil Officer; the Right Column advanced from Chittagong under the command of Gen CA Brown Low, with Capt TH Lewin, Superintendent of Chittagong Hill Tracts, as Civil Officer. In addition, a contingent of Manipuris under the command of Major Thangal and Major Songaijamba accompanied by Gen Nuthall, the Political Agent of Manipur, made a demonstration march across the southern border of Manipur in support of Gen Bourcheir’s operation. The Manipuri contingent, on their way back to Manipur, met the Guite Chief, Goukhothang who was treacherously seized and carried off to Manipur, where he died in jail in 1872. The action was bitterly criticised by Edgar and Gen Bourchier who charged Manipuris as ‘liars’ and Nuthall as a ‘coward’.
The military campaign in Western Lushai Hills (Zogam) was successful and most of the Zomi chiefs were reduced to submission. Mary Winchester was surrendered, and the fines imposed were paid. Once the expedition was completed, the British withdrew from Western Lushai Hills, leaving the chiefs to rule as before. At the time, the British had no intention of occupying the country.
Then, the question of frontier defence came up for re-consideration. However despite the advocacy of ‘Forward Policy’ of the ‘complete military occupation’ of territory by the frontier officers, the policy of loose control and conciliation was re-affirmed in the belief that the successful Lushai Expedition would have convinced the Zomi of the inadvisability of further raids on British subjects. To some extent the policy was successful, and for ten years there was no further trouble.
The Chin-Lushai Expedition 1889-1890
The British government was fully aware of the alarming situation which was created by the Zomi of the so called Chin-Lushai Land. Accordingly, on September 11, 1889, a decision was taken which was to change the course of the history of the Zomi. The policy hitherto followed i.e. merely sending punitive expeditions, was abandoned, and a new “policy of pacification through permanent occupation” was adopted. The expedition entrusted with the implementation of the new policy advanced from three directions, involving the governments of Bengal, Assam and Burma. The expedition was carried out under three Army columns:
The Lushai (Chittagong) Field Force under the command of Brig Gen FVG Tregear marched to Haka via Lunglei, linking up with the Southern Column.
The Chin (Gangaw) Field Force or the Southern Column under the command of Brig Gen WP Symons was sent by the Government of Burma to punish the Zomi of Chin Hills.
The Northern Column, also from Burma, under the command of Col GJ Skinner, marched towards the north.
The combined British forces consisted of 6,871 men, not counting the police groups supporting each column. It was well co-ordinated and was the largest expedition so far The objectives of the expedition include — to punitively visit and subjugate certain tribes as yet neutral; to explore and open up the partly known country between Burma and Chittagong and to establish semi-permanent posts in the region so as to ensure complete pacification and recognition of British power
The operation began in November 1889 and was successfully concluded five months later in March 1890. Considering the war-like character of the Zomi and the ferocity they had exhibited in their raids on the plains they put up surprisingly little resistance against the expedition. In fact, there was no opposition worth the name. The divided and feud-ridden Zomi community was not in a position to fight the superior British Forces. It was the ignorance of the power of the enemy and the necessity for common action in self-defense which enabled the expedition of 1889-’90 to achieve its objectives with far fewer casualties than had been anticipated
The main work achieved in the expedition, apart from the rescue of the Chengri Valley captives, was to establish posts and organise communication The Lushai Field Force established posts at Aijal (Aizawl) and Changsil, while the Southern column established Fort Tregear and improved Fort Lunglei.
On the administrative side, these operations led to the creation of the two districts of North Lushai Hills and South Lushai Hills, with Headquarters at Aizawl and Lunglei respectively. The North Lushai Hills became part of the Chief Commissionership of Assam, while the southern district was attached to Bengal (present Bangladesh) This is an example of fragmentation of Zomi and their land under British subjugation.
Consolidation Of British Rule
This section “Consolidation Of British Rule” is further categorised into:
- Administration
- The Country and
- Chin-Lushai Conference, 1892
Administration
The last decade of the 19th Century was the First decade of British occupation and consolidation of administration. In order to consolidate their administration, the Political Officer and Superintendent of North Lushai Hills and South Lushai Hills were directed to work in concert with each other, and also with their counterparts in Haka and Fort White in the Chin Hills. The policy was to take measures for the purpose of “establishing political influence and control over them (Zomi), and inducing them to submit themselves to our rule.”
The Country
Consolidation of the Chin-Lushai country inhabited by the Zomi had been a subject of interest among British officials both in India and Burma. The military expeditions conducted from three directions by three governments — Bengal, Assam and Burma — led to the creation of three spheres of influence, with three separate administrative units attached to the three governments. This was an “unnatural” situation because the peoples inhabiting these countries had been, during the expeditions, found to be of “one race“ or “the same stock” Col. E.B Elly, Asst Quarter Master General, also pointed out thus,
“All these (Zomi clans) were people of the same race, speaking dialects of the same language, wearing the same dress, and having the same customs, form of politics, and religious belief… “
The present arrangement was also found to be administratively inconvenient because the people (Zomi) could play off one officer against another The unity — and consequent danger of divided administration — had been demonstrated when the people in the southern hills had taken up arms in 1872 in sympathy with the rising in the north Also during 1894-95, it seemed as if there was a movement towards unified rule under the Chiefs of Falam
Chin-Lushai Conference
It was, therefore, logical for the concerned authorities to attempt to amalgamate the three administrative units into one. The Calcutta conference of 1892, which came to be known as the “Chin-Lushai Conference,” was held specifically for this purpose. At its final sitting on January 19, 1892, it passed a resolution, part of which stated:
Resolution No. 1: “The majority of the conference are of the opinion that it is very desirable that the whole tract of country known as the Chin-Lushai Hills (Zogam) should be brought under one administrative head as soon as this can be done…” (for full text please go to Documents)
As a first step towards implementing the resolution, the North and South Lushai Hills were amalgamated on April 1, 1898 through a proclamation of the Government of India However, the other resolution about joining the Zomi inhabited areas of India and Burma was not implemented even though there are no substantive arguments against its implementation. The proposal was not forgotten, however. As late as 1941 Sir Robert Reid, Governor of Assam, in a confidential note about future arrangements advocated the setting up of a Hill Province that would include all the areas inhabited by the Mongoloid hill tribal in the region. He wrote thus:
“The separation of Burma from India on lines of the present frontiers will permanently divorce portions of tribes which naturally should comprise a single unit.”
He believed that it was the duty of the government to rectify this mistake because “rebellion, bloodshed and ultimate ruin” would be the consequence of its failure to do so
Colonial Administration
By the time the Zo country was annexed, the British had accumulated a certain amount of knowledge and experiences in dealing with the indigenous tribes. These experiences, together with the obvious fact that the tribal (including Zomi) of the North East India had no racial, historical, cultural or linguistic affinity with the peoples of the surrounding plains, led the British to create a system of administration which placed emphasis on self government based upon the traditional customs and cultures of the people. The British administrators had never directly interfered in the internal administration of the tribal of the North East, including the Zomi. This could be observed from the following links:
- Colonial system of indirect rule and
- Protective Discrimination
Colonial System of Indirect Rule
When the British took upon them the administration of the Chin-Lushai country, Chieftainship was retained and Chiefs were allowed to rule the village in accordance with the existing customary laws. The British Political Officers would interfere only when a chief refused to obey the general norms set by him. The Chiefs were required to recognise and give loyalty to the British Crown, and their interests were normally protected by the colonial ruler. (Proclamation No 978-P, 1898, by the Chief Commissioner of Assam.)
Protective Discrimination
The British worked out a system of Regulations with a view to restrict contacts between the Zomi and outsiders. Their intention was not of “isolating the Zomi” but allowing them to develop their (Zomi) own lives and be protected against exploitation and the subservience of their rules and customs by a different civilization which would be unsuited to them. This position supported Mc Call’s view that the British administrator should,
‘do all he can to ensure that where changes have to come, or even have occurred, that they should be the result of development of local genius within the framework of indigenous culture rather than the often too insecure grasping at some quite foreign conception of thought.’
The objectives, he went on to say, was to allow the Zomi to work out their own salvation” Thus, under section 2 of the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation of 1873, the Governor-General-in-Council notified an “Inner Line” beyond which no British subject could move without a Pass from the Deputy Commissioner. Besides this, sections 22, 23, 38(2) and 40 of the Chin Hills Regulation, 1896 were extended to Zomi inhabited areas of India in modified form with effect from Oct 9, 1911. Under these sections of the Regulation, the Superintendent or the Deputy Commissioner of the District can order a person, who is not the native of the area to leave the area within a specified time, if his presence is felt to be injurious to the peace and good administration of the area. According to the Scheduled Districts Act, 1874, the provincial government could determine what enactments were or were not to be in force and with what restrictions or modifications. This was in conformity with the Assam Frontier Tracts Regulation II of 1880.
Under the Government of India Act, 1919, the Governor-General in Council declared Lushai Hills (Zomi Areas) as “Backward Tract” in which only the laws suited to the areas were applied.’ Even when popular ministries were formed under the Act of 1919, the subject of backward area was left to the Governor’s special power. Again, the Government of India Act 1935 empowered the King-in-Council to declare any area of the British territory to be an “Excluded Area” or “Partially Excluded Area.” Lushai Hills was declared an Excluded Area in 1936, which means that the Governor of Assam, the Provincial government and legislature were not responsible for its administration.
After independence, most parts of Zomi inhabited areas were placed under the 6th Scheduled of the Constitution, while eastern Zogam was given ‘Chin Hills Special Division.’ The Zomi in Manipur Hills experienced slightly different political administration. Before the Burmese War (1824-1826), they were only nominally under the control of the Raja of Manipur. But even after the conclusion of peace with Burma, the majority of Zomi tribes were independent and known to the British little more than by name. Ever since 1891 the hill areas were being administered by the British officers. From 1891 to 1907, the Political Agent ruled these areas, but even after 1907 when the Maharaja took over the administration of the state, the hill areas remained the special responsibility of the British ICS officer who was the President of the Maharaja’s Darbar. During this long period justice was administered in the hill areas according to the respective customs of the tribes (Zomi).
Zomi Rebellions
The annexation of Zogam and its subsequent British administration was not without any problems. The Zomi never hesitated to fight against discrimination or any unjust laws imposed upon them. Some of the notable Zomi rebellion during British rule are briefly discussed, please visit below links to read on…
- The Sihzang-Gungal Rebellion and
- Thadou, Zou & Haka Resistance Movement
The Sihzang-Gungal Rebellion
The forced raising of a large number of labourers for the construction of new roads and imposition of heavy fines on the people were the main causes of the revolt. Pu Thuamthawng, Chief of Kaptel was the architect of the revolt. The disarmament policy of the British caused serious concern to him. Then on May 6, 1892, he, along with the Chiefs of Zahau, Hualngos and Luseis attacked a British military post at Boutung (Boucung). He also sent envoys to the other Zomi chiefs and asked them to join him in this cause. He received a very good response from other groups of Zomi and so led a revolution against the British. In order to materialize his plan, he devised a scheme of befooling the British. Taking stock of the alarming situation, the British Government immediately decided to take repressive measures against the Zomi who revolted against them. Before the end of December, 1893 all the Sihzang villages involved in the rebellion had been completely destroyed and army posts were established at Dimlou, Phunom, Pimpi and Montak. The British could easily suppress the rebellion of the Zomi because of their military might.
By April 1, 1895, the British could completely disarm all the rebels and about 4,302 guns were recovered in the Chin Hills alone. According to an estimate the British could collect more than ten thousand guns from Zomi areas.
Thadou, Zou & Haka Resistance Movement
In the year 1917, the British again faced another problem from a different group of Zomi. This movement was known by different names. In the Chin Hills, it was called the Haka Movement. Another name was Zou Gal (Zoumi War). The Thadous called it Thadou Gal (Thadou War). However, in the official records of Manipur it was known as Kuki Rebellion. Despite the official name, the most popular name was Zou Gal.
The forced raising of the Labour Corps from these areas was the main cause of the outbreak of the movement. To suppress this uprising the British Government spent more than 20 lakhs of rupees. The Thadou chiefs, Zoute chiefs and the Haka chiefs were against this recruitment policy of the Government. Inspite of their strong protest, the British could manage to raise the first Manipur Labour Corps consisting of 2,000 Nagas and Zomi in the month of May, 1917 and they were sent away to France. From the Chin Hills 3,000 Zomi went to France and Subedar Mangpum was made the leader of the Zomi. Earlier 2,100 young men from the Lushai Hills District went to France voluntarily. In June, 1917, the Government again prepared to collect more volunteers but their policy was flatly refused by the Thadou chiefs in the month of September, 1917.
As a mark of protest against the British and to stop further recruitment, the Zomi in Manipur openly revolted against the British in the month of December, 1917. In Manipur, the rebellion spread like wild-fire, particularly in the Thadou inhabited areas—Jampi, Sangnao, Khauchangbung, Dulen and Laijang in the west; Chahsat and Maokot in the east; Mombi and Lonza in the south-east and Henglep and Loikhai (Ukha) in the southwest. The Chief of Aisan, Chengjapao, who was the “Piba” or head of the Thadous, sent orders to all the leading Thadou chiefs to resist the British with force, if necessary. A very important meeting was held at Jampi Village. The chiefs who attended the meeting were (a) Tintong Haokip, Chief of Laizang, (b) Khotinthang Sitlou, Chief of Jampi, (c) Songchung Sitlou, Chief of Sangnao, (d) Lamkholal Sitlou, Chief of Chongjang, (e) Letkhothang Haokip, Chief of Loikhai, (f) Vumngul Kipgen, Chief of Tujang, (h) Lhunjangul Kipgen, son of Vumngul and Enjakhup Kholhou of Thenjang, etc. The Thadou chiefs appointed Tintong Haokip as Field Commander of the war. Khotinthang Sitlou, the Chief of Jampi killed one Mithun to entertain the chiefs and “Sajam”was distributed to all the chiefs. Thus, a powerful conspiracy of the Thadou chiefs was established. And the Singson chief cut off the tail of a mithun as a mark of declaration of war against the British on behalf of his clan.
In response, between December 1917 and May 1918, three columns of the 3rd and 4th Assam Rifles were engaged in action. They burnt down a large number of villages and all the food grains and livestock were destroyed. But in spite of the ruthless methods employed by the columns of the Assam Rifles and their superiority in weapons and training, the rebel parties were able to inflict more casualties than they suffered. Towards the end of May, further operations in the hills became difficult and the forces withdrew to Imphal. In June-July, the British Government realised that military operations would be necessary to bring the matter under control and in the cold weather of 1918-1919, they started military operation. Such was their success that most of the chiefs began to surrender to the British
In the south of Manipur, Hiangtam Fort was a noteworthy example where the Zou tribe of the Zomi picked up the gauntlet. The British soldiers fought hard for seven days continuously at the Hiangtam Fort. In this battle, Langzachin of Behiang and Goulun of Hiangtam village were the leaders of the Zomi.
In September 1917, the same type of rebellion broke out and spread in the Chin Hills area under the leadership of Vankio, the Chief of Zoukhua, who also declined to send volunteers for the British Labour Corps. He was joined by the Songte Chief of Haka and Lalwe, Chief of Thantlang. The activities of the rebellion very soon spread to the interior parts of Chin Hills. In early December 1917, Haka was blocked by the rebel party. They burnt down Government houses and the missionary hospital. The rebellion again spread to Zongling in Mindat and to the southern Lushai Hills, covering the upper Bawinu River to Wantu, Laitet and Ngaphai. In the meantime Shempu, a Zomi chief called on the Zomi of the upper Chindwin District and Somra Tracts to support the rebellion. However, the Thaungdut areas refused to do so and they extended their loyalty to the British. In any case, the rebellion led by Ngulbul, Pache, Tintong and Enjakhup continued from December 1917, to May 1919. The British took the rebellion very seriously.
To crush the rebellion, the British sent troops to Haka and to the Thadou inhabited areas. 18 villages were burnt down, and 600 guns were delivered to the British. Political control was resumed by the authorities in April, 1919 and in that month, an Advisory Tribunal was appointed in connection with the cases of the principal chiefs who were accused of involvement in the rebellion. Three persons, who were held mainly responsible for the rebellion, were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. Nine chiefs were interned in the neighbourhood of Sadia in the Sydyia Frontier Tracts for a short period. Five of the Khuangli tribe of Falam were deported to Burma.
After the suppression of the rebellion the officials of the British Government turned their attention to the improvement of the administration of the hill areas. They were of the view that all the recent happenings were due to the irregularities in the hill administration, particularly in Manipur. Sir Nicholas Beatson Bell, the Chief Commissioner of Assam was inclined to hold that the most satisfactory solution would be to place the hill tribes directly under the Political Agent with powers equivalent to those of a Sub Divisional Officer. At the same time, he was not in favour of any move to annex the hills.
It was laid down that the President of the Sub-Divisional Officer shall try all cases (both civil and criminal) in regard to the cases of hill people. But in cases of capital punishment like death sentences, or transportation or imprisonment exceeding seven years, the Governor’s confirmation has to be obtained. His Highness the Maharajah of Manipur was to consult the British Political Agent in all matters pertaining to the hill tribes. The Darbar exercised no direct control, but from time to time it tried to claim more indirect control through its power over the budget.
In 1919, the entire area of Manipur was divided into four sub-divisions with their headquarters at: (a) Imphal, (b) Churachandpur, (c) Tamenglong and (d) Ukhrul. This arrangement continued till January 1, 1930 when an arrangement for the administration of the hill areas was contemplated. The whole area was immediately placed under the President of Manipur State Durbar with two Sub Divisional Officers to assist him, one being in charge of the South and the other of the North.
In the Chin Hills also, the British released all the six Haka chiefs and leaders who were actively involved in the rebellion at Tedim. Apart from this, the British also could acquire a sizeable un-administered areas lying between the Chin Hills (about 850 square miles in the Pakkoku Hills Tracts) and about 1,500 square miles in the Hill District of Arakan. In order to bring about a regulation in the hill administration, they appointed headmen to settle their disputes. On the other hand, they also collected tribute from the villages. They also fixed new boundary lines of the newly acquired areas.
It was not the people who derived their name ZO from the high altitude of their abode, but on the contrary it was the high lands and especially the farm lands there, called ‘Zo Lo’ which derived their name from the Zo people who cultivated the farms’